Hardware & Handheld Evolution

What the numbers don't tell you

Clock speed is only comparable within the same processor family. A 3.2 GHz chip from 2006 does far less work per cycle than a modern design, and graphics performance depends on the GPU, memory bandwidth and software as much as the CPU. Teraflop figures, popular in marketing since the PS4 and Xbox One era, measure theoretical GPU throughput rather than real frame rates. Architecture also matters for developers: the PS3's Cell processor was powerful but notoriously hard to program, while the PS4 and Xbox One moved to PC-like x86 designs that made cross-platform development simpler.

From cartridges to SSDs

• Cartridges (1970s–1990s): near-instant loading and durable, but expensive to manufacture and limited in capacity.
• CD-ROM (1990s): around 650 MB per disc, cheap to press and able to hold full-motion video and CD-quality audio, at the cost of loading screens.
• DVD (2000s): the PS2 doubled as a DVD player, which helped its popularity; the original Xbox added an internal hard drive.
• Blu-ray and downloads (late 2000s–2010s): the PS3 used Blu-ray, and digital storefronts made downloads and patches routine.
• NVMe SSDs (2020s): PS5 and Xbox Series X|S use fast solid-state storage, dramatically cutting load times and allowing more detailed worlds to stream in.

How controllers evolved

Nintendo's Game & Watch popularised the cross-shaped D-pad, later carried over to the NES. The SNES added shoulder buttons. The Nintendo 64 made the analog stick standard, and its Rumble Pak brought force feedback. Sony's DualShock established the twin-stick layout still used today. The Wii Remote (2006) introduced motion pointing to a mass audience, while the Switch's detachable Joy-Con made a controller you can split between two players. The PS5's DualSense added adaptive triggers and precise haptics, and Switch 2's Joy-Con 2 can work like a computer mouse.